Appropriate Classroom Behavior Essay

Behavior is a choice, and a teacher’s role is to aid students when learning to make good choices. Inappropriate behavior is not acceptable. It should be followed by negative consequences and therefore be discouraged. When the teacher responds to different behaviors, either positive, or negative, it teaches the student something. School is a place where students are given the opportunity to learn and receive an education as well as socialize. Part of the learning process is interaction, however, it should only occur when the time is suitable. Being in the classroom should be considered a privilege. That privilege should only be given if a student’s behavior does not interfere with the ability of the teacher to teach effectively or the ability of other students to participate in classroom learning activities. Consequences should be given to individual students who choose to interrupt the teacher’s lesson or distract others. A whole class should not be punished but should be aware of how that behavior was not right. The behavior that took place last Friday was not acceptable and should not be tolerated.

Adolescent Moral Development

Morality can be defined as the distinction between what is right and wrong or what is good and bad. Although, moral reasoning depends on culture which makes it difficult to define. Most people don’t look at where these principles are coming from or what guides one through moral development. As children grow and learn, usually from care takers and people who inspire their every need, their morality changes based on several levels. Although researching of moral development goes as far back as Socrates, there are two psychologists that studied morality in depth and they are Lawrence Kohlberg and Jean Piaget.Jean Piaget was a cognitive developmental psychologists spending most of his time working with children and adolescents, including his own. Although, Piaget’s observation of moral development wasn’t in depth like Kohlberg, he allowed for a basic understanding. He believed that moral development occurred in stages. Piaget strongly believed in education and thought interaction in a education setting allowed children maximum potential in cognitive development. Piaget believed in many things, but when it came to moral development there were only two basic principles.The first principle was that children develop moral ideas in stages and could not skip stages, although movement from one stage to the other could vary in length. Lastly he believed that children create their own perception of their world, including whether their actions enforce what is morally right or wrong. â€Å"Piaget's ideas of moral realism and morality of cooperation play a role in Kohlberg's theory. Children in Piaget's stage of moral realism believe that rules are absolute and can't be changed.Punishment should be determined by how much damage is done, and the intention of the child is not taken into account. For example, a child operating in the stage of moral realism would believe that a child who accidentally breaks three cups should be punished more than a child who b reaks one cup on purpose. Eventually, both the damage done and the intention of the offender in a given moral dilemma are considered in this stage of moral development. † Lawrence Kohlberg studied moral development in depth and that is what he is most commonly known for.Although his basic ideas and principles originated from the ideas of Piaget, Kohlberg did an in depth study of the basics of morality and how a child or adolescents move from one stage to the next. Kolberg had developed six stages of moral development. All of the stages were grouped into three levels of sub categories. Stages one and two are pre-conventional judgment and moral development. Stages three and four are conventional judgment. Lastly, stages are five and six are post conventional.When children are born Kolberg believes that they have no morals and as they grow and learn, morals begin to form. The pre-conventional level is where morality begins. This is the basis of moral judgment. The moral values he re in this stage are external. Stage one is based on obedience and punishment. If a child is punished they will try and avoid the situation knowing that they will be punished so that act is known as wrong to the children. Stage two is a slightly more complex stage. Children are now egocentric and are able to exchange thoughts and ideas.Both male and females hold certain roles and have different beliefs. The conventional level â€Å"Those who reason in a conventional way judge the morality of actions by comparing them to society's views and expectations. Conventional morality is characterized by an acceptance of society's conventions concerning right and wrong. At this level an individual obeys rules and follows society's norms even when there are no consequences for obedience or disobedience. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid, however, and a rule's appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned â€Å".Stage three is where children are labeled. In this stage ch ildren are labeled either good or bad. Children try and please others for acceptance and approval. For example, during the Christmas holiday season children try their hardest to be good so Santa will come and bring them Christmas presents. Where as if they are bad they will receive coal. Stage four is where authority comes in and plays a highly important role. Children learn that authority figures are the ones who control and maintain order. Also they try and live up to others expectations instead of their own.The post conventional level is where moral values allow adolescents and adults to distinguish the difference between societies view of right and wrong and the views of their individual views. Most people live by these views of right and wrong. In stage five the world is known as being able to hold their own opinions and views. Stage six is using your own opinions and applying them. For instance choosing to use logic and consistency or the feeling of your own ethics to make und erstandable and logical decisions. While a child grows the formation of morality is highly important.Alcoholics, drug addicts and murderers might suffer from disturbed moral thoughts which might cause an error in their beliefs of right and wrong. For instance, a murderer who grew up in an abusive home atmosphere might think it is okay to be abusive and hurt other people. So therefore there morality was culture based and was encouraged based on the home life sustained. The same for alcoholics and drug addicts. Although, not all people who come from these types of dysfunctional families suffer and act upon there cultural up bringing some may.

Compare and Contrast the Three Categories of Scope

Question 1: Compare and contrast the three categories of scope of charge to income tax A modern form of income tax was introduced into Federation of Malaya in 1947 by using the derived and remittance basis. Income Tax Act (ITA) 1967 came into effect has imposed world income basis on the resident company involved in specialized industries. Malaysia adopted a territorial and remittance. With effect of year of assessment of 2004, taxation basis amended to exempt income remitted into Malaysia from oversea.Until now, Malaysia income tax imposed on territorial basis that tax on income accrued in or derived from Malaysia. The revolution of these three taxation basis has different scope of charge to resident person and non-resident person. The individual and company residence status and also the sources of income are examined under three basis to determine which kind of income received by taxable person should be taxed. Resident status is determined by the number of day physically presence w ithin the country where generally individual stay in Malaysia total 182 days or more will be a resident.Territorial basis: Under territorial basis which Malaysia is applying currently, taxable person such as individual, company or bodies of person is chargeable only on income accruing in or derived from Malaysia. Income arising within Malaysia borders means the territories of the Federation of Malaysia, the territorial waters of Malaysia and the sea-bed and sub-soil of territorial waters and any area extending beyond the limits of the territorial waters of Malaysia are subjected to tax.In this scope of charge, resident and non resident individual and company are all taxable on its income derived from Malaysia only. Non resident company taxed on income accrued or derived from Malaysia if it has permanent establishment in Malaysia. Derived and Remittance Basis: This scope of charge provided that resident person is chargeable on income accruing in or derived from Malaysia and also inco me received in Malaysia from oversea.Prior to year of assessment of 2004, only non-resident are exempted from tax on foreign source income received in Malaysia. Income remitted into Malaysia from oversea by resident person is taxable before 2004 until the effective year of assessment in 2004, a revised paragraph 28 Schedule 6 ITA exempts the income of any person including resident person received in Malaysia except those resident company carrying business on specialized industry that will be discussed later in world income basis.World income basis Resident company and non-resident company are taxed on territorial basis except for resident company carrying on business in specialized industries such as banking, insurance, sea and air transport. Under Section 60C of ITA, 1967, business sources income from these industries are taxed on world income basis. This means that business income of resident company will be imposed on tax regardless of wherever the income derived even if income a rises outside the country where individual resides.Question 2: Discuss the relevance of the three categories on the types of income received by a taxable person. These three categories of taxation basis imposed on different kind of income received by taxable person. Territorial or derived Basis In the scope of territorial basis, taxable person such as resident and non-resident individual and company excluded company carrying in specialized industry such as banking, insurance, sea and air transporter are taxed on income derived in Malaysia.Non-resident individual and company do not taxed on income received in Malaysia from oversea. Under section 4(a) ITA, income tax is imposed on gains and profit of a business. Resident and non-resident company that earn profit from their normal business activity in Malaysia are liable to tax as in accordance to the territorial basis stated that any income accrued and derived in Malaysia must be taxed. Business income for resident company are general ly taxable but non-resident company only taxable provided they has permanent establishment in Malaysia.For example, business profit gained from Hwa Tai Industries Berhad, local biscuit manufacturer company that does not fall under special industry is taxable based on resident company tax rate of 25%. Another example for non-resident company cases such as company Seesaw ltd carrying business of clothing manufacturer, it will be taxed only on business source income from clothing in Malaysia. Besides, this basis provided that employment income derived from Malaysia for resident and non-resident individual under section 4(b) of ITA 1967 is hargeable to tax. For examples, Mr. Erick Lund from Sweden who is a non-resident works in Shell company is liable to tax for his employment income. However for non-resident individual, they are also subjected to tax on the income of employment exercised in Malaysia but they are exempted if they satisfied the 60 day rule under paragraph 21 and 22 Sched ule 6. Although tax liability arise when income accrued in or derived from Malaysia in territorial basis, there are numerous types of income are exempted from tax in the hand of resident individual.Resident individual can enjoy the benefit of tax exemption such as pension income paid for Malaysian employment for approved scheme (paragraph 30, Schedule 6 of ITA) , royalties for literary and artistic (paragraph 32, 32A, 32B), income for cultural performance approved by minister (paragraph 32C), income for musical composition (paragraph 32D) and also interest income from financial institution with effect from 30 August 2008.Other types of investment income that did not listed fall in Section 4 (c), (d), (e), (f) are generally taxable for resident individual. Revenue income that is assessable to tax includes interest received for Islamic securities, other than convertible loan stock, approved by securities commission and rental income. For examples, Mrs Lim who works as a clerk in accou nting firm also received income from renting her apartment to few people.Apart from employment income as clerk is taxable under section 4 ( b), her rental income also liable to tax under section 4 ( d). For non-resident individual, they are subjected to tax on the income of employment exercised in Malaysia as mentioned above and also exempted for pension income paid for Malaysian employment for approved scheme, interest received Islamic securities and also interest from financial institution.However, they are taxable on royalties, income for cultural performance, income for musical composition. royalties for literary and artistic, income for cultural performance approved by minister, income for musical composition and also interest income from financial institution in paragraph 33, Schedule 6. References: 1. Inland Revenue Board Malaysia, 2011. Residence Status of Companies and Bodies of Persons. [online] Inland Revenue Board Malaysia. Available at:<

Molecular Neuro-degeneration Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Molecular Neuro-degeneration - Essay Example It is evident that no drug has been discovered that could to completely protect neurons; there are two possible approaches to that may come up with the treatment of AD. One approach involves treatment which prevents the onset of the disease through curbing the primary targets and reducing the subsequent pathologies of the AD. This way, it becomes possible to slow the disease progression and hence prevention to the development of AD (Vradenburg 2013). The second approach involves the symptomatic treatment; an approach whereby the primary and tertiary symptoms of the AD are declined. Through this approach, reflection to the current state of treatment including the usual treatment the cognitive impairment, the decline in global function, deteriorating performance of activities of daily living and behavioral change ( Perry 2013). When searching for the appropriate treatment strategies, scientists concentrate on the severity of the disease and also the specificity of each individual. Currently the available therapeutic agents are the main target to specific symptoms of the AD; the agents such as cholinesterase inhibitors involved in the enhancement of cholinergic neurotransmission and also the inhibiting of acetylcholine degradation within the synapse are the Alzheimer’s disease main treatment (Vradenburg 2013). Going by the report on the role of the involvement of PI3 kinase signaling in AÃŽ ²-induced memory loss in Drosophila, the PI3K-Akt-mTOR pathway regulation in AÃŽ ² oligomer neuronal cell cycle process and Amyloid-b Interruption of the PI3K-Akt-mTOR signaling pathway involvement in brain-derived neurotrophic factor-induced arc expression in rat scientists can improve theirs unleash a further superior drug to completely heal the Alzheimer’s disease (Perry 2013). One of the hindrances to the progress of other researchers on AD have been due to the fact that most drugs developed show general success in animal specimens but when testing them to human beings, they become less responsive, Therefore, it is safe to say that this project is still in its infancy and further studies have to be carried out but in the long run a solution will be arrived upon.

Impact of Export Subsidy on Demand, Supply and Price Assignment

Impact of Export Subsidy on Demand, Supply and Price - Assignment Example For this reason, therefore, the effects of subsidies on the economy are often separated into short term and long term effects. It is mostly argued that although in the short run these subsidies prove to be a quick remedy for lifting up weak industries and promoting their growth, in the longer run the same tool proves to be detrimental for industries who then become permanently dependant on the state for it. This report attempts to analyze a particular form of subsidy known as an export subsidy in terms of its intended aims and its actual effects on the economic structure. The aim of this report is to analyze the economic impact of an export subsidy in an open economy (Australia in this case). The analysis shall begin with a thorough conceptual analysis of an export subsidy and its nature, followed by its effects on output and price as well as economic welfare and government budget. The report concludes with recommendations for government policy along with potential limitations of thi s economic analysis. 2.0 Export Subsidies Export subsidies have since long been used by governments as part of their policy to enhance export of locally produced goods and dampen the sale of locally produced goods in the local market. ... Also, export subsidy is an alternative to the provision of production subsidy to producers competing with imported goods in the domestic market. Simply put, the export subsidy is a motivation for local producers to increase their supply of exports as opposed to goods for domestic consumption (Carbaugh, 2010). 2.1 Impact of Export Subsidy on Demand, Supply and Price Considering that wine production is a part of the agricultural industry, export subsidies may be imposed by these in order to enhance their exports. Assuming that wine is a homogenous product and that it operates in a homogenous market, the analysis of the Australian government imposing export subsidies is simplified. An export subsidy will cause the domestic production to increase, thereby enhancing exports in turn (World Trade Organization, 2006). The domestic price of wine will rise provided that Australian simultaneously embarks on a policy of banning any re-imports. The greatest assumption here is that the Australian economy (the economy where export subsidy is imposed) is a price-taker (selling homogenous wine); hence, the resulting outcome will not have any influence on the world price of wine. If this assumption was dropped and the Australian economy was assumed to be a â€Å"large† economy in terms of wine, then the resulting economic changes would have driven changes in world output and resulted in inefficiencies as far as international trade is concerned. In that case then, the resulting increase in exports would have driven down world price of wine depending on the share of world wine production that Australia holds with respect to other countries (World Trade Organization, 2006). The simplistic case of

Economics Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 4

Economics - Research Paper Example The acquisition of this form of knowledge depends on the owners of business processes, as they are the only entities with the ability to evaluate and quantify the financial, operational and regulatory consequences of disruptions. The effects in reputation have remained difficult to calculate precisely and accurately. An elaborate analysis of information security risks should reflect the manner in which operations are affected and the manner in which time affects this impact since this is hardly ever a linear function (Kairab, 2005). For instance, a service interruption that last for ten minutes may have negligible ramifications while a similar service interruption or breach that last for a longer time may have catastrophic effects on a business or a company. Information risk definition and quantification is founded on accessible and dependable data that is evaluated by people who are conversant with particular information security processes, they enable the assessment of the effects in a reasonable

Symbolic Frame Response & Reflection Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Symbolic Frame Response & Reflection - Assignment Example Ceremonies and rituals within an institution are important. Every school has its own celebrations in its academic calendar. The celebrations and rituals aim at evaluating the progress of the school while at the same time creates accountability to parents and other stakeholders of the school. Rituals and celebrations play a big role in creating culture in the school while at the same time propagating good relationship within the school community A schools mission and vision statement are symbolic statements to show the schools values and beliefs and provide meaning and direction. Deal and Peterson (2009) discuss how people need a mission and a purpose to connect with the schools goals. To what degree mission and vision statements are employed depend on what meaning they provide to the school. If these statements are a medium that provide that emotional connection for why a school operates, then it will be evident in the culture of the school. Most likely, these statements will be implemented in the daily operations of a school and the staff and students will know what the schools values are. My schools mission and vision statements are reviewed regularly to remind us as a staff what we are doing and why we are doing it The heroes and heroines within the symbolic frame are all of those that make the organization part of who they are. The take pride in what they do and of the organization they belong to. They are teachers, administrators, custodians, lunch people, students, and parents. They mark the school and others around them in a positive manner. They are seen as a school symbol that reflects the good of the school and all positive change to come. Most schools have common ceremonies and rituals that take place at different times throughout the year. Some ceremonies and rituals that are common in most schools are: Beginning and end of the school year, various student awards,

Humanitarian Interventionism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Humanitarian Interventionism - Essay Example Military interventions have a long history both prior to and during the Cold War, and even at the turn of the decade it was not apparent that they might no longer be undertaken in the future. These interventions were justified on moral grounds, or on the grounds of international law, or as selfless acts. On October 7, 2001, the U.S. launched a massive military assault on Afghanistan that effaced its political structure and created an enormous refugee situation. From the middle of 2002, the U.S. threatened to do the same thing to Iraq, running through a spectrum of reasons that changed as each previous argument collapsed. After giving up on efforts of U.N. inspectors to find weapons of mass destruction in that country, the Bush administration's inability to do so dissolved that pretext as well. The assault on Afghanistan, mounted in response to the events of September 11, 2001, was part of a two-decade-long series that included Grenada (1982), Panama (1989), Iraq (1991), and Yugoslavia (1999). Each assault had its own peculiarity, and violated certain principles of democracy and international law; yet, each received overwhelming support in the U.S., at institutional and popular levels. Though its moments differ, they reveal a common structure and the series as a whole poses an envelo ping question concerning its general acceptability. After the 9/11 After the 9/11 attacks, though no one took credit for this coordinated act of destruction, the U.S. government immediately claimed, without evidence, that a Saudi expatriate allegedly living in Afghanistan was responsible, and that 19 men of Middle Eastern origin, whose names the FBI published two days later, had committed this act of collective suicide and mass murder. International law provides the right to defend against terrorist attacks, but not to retaliate without going through certain international channels and procedures, which the U.S. ignored. Though in violation of international law (the Geneva Accords and U.N. Charter), the military assault on Afghanistan constituted the first act in what was declared to be an "endless war." The massive bombing of Afghanistan created a civilian death count considerably beyond that of the World Trade Center; whole villages were obliterated, and an already critical refugee and starvation situation was exacerbated, stretching well into Paki stan. In place of the Taliban organization, an interim government was invented. Though objection to this assault in the U.S. was small, it was repressed: public figures who spoke against the attack were vilified, people were fired, students suspended from school, social programs closed, university professors sanctioned, etc. to arrest one man. The assault on Afghanistan, according to military experts, would have required at least three months of logistical preparation; indeed, plans for the assault had begun the previous July. (Stan Goff) If so, the arrest of bin Laden was merely a legalistic pretext for a prior political project, the change of regime in Afghanistan. This raises two issues. The first is the use of international legalism to symbolize rather than explain or authorize an intervention, the pursuit of which violates international and U.S. law. The second is the structure of popular acceptance that likewise ignores illegality (the violation of a treaty, of international codes, and the principle of national sovereignty). The U.S. invaded Panama

Alternative Courses of Action Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Alternative Courses of Action - Essay Example An example one has gone through in gathering and evaluating information from a number of sources prior to making a decision would thereby be presented as follows: As one was pursuing a Business Management Degree from 2007 to 2011, it was deemed crucial that to assist in supporting one’s academic requirements, there is a need to find employment where one’s knowledge, abilities, and skills would be appropriately used and developed. Finding the preferred job according to one’s academic background, competencies and skills that would fit the requirements of the position is an example of a situation that necessitates gathering and evaluating different options and where ones decision would actually depend on the organizations which would relay a positive response to one’s job application. After two years of studying, one sought possible employment in fields seeking positions that do not require specific educational qualifications but where minimum criteria could be immediately met. There were positions open for Care Assistants or for Customer Service Representatives. Since these two positions were preferred, these became one’s alternative courses of action: to choose applying for a Care Assistant job or to select a Customer Service Representative Job. To gather pertinent information needed to analyze these options, one searched online sources of job descriptions, average annual income, locations of employer, the skills and educational requirements. Both positions offer basically the same salary ranges ( £15,000 per annum) but the job descriptions and responsibilities are contrasting. Care assistants focus on â€Å"provides help and support to people with limited mobility or other care needs.

Business law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Business law - Essay Example gal act and quiet unethical as it manipulates the inventory so as to attract potential investors by adding the credit worthiness as well as increasing chances of being advanced a facility by a financial institution. It could also imply that increased inventory statements will equally reduce the cost of goods thus reduce the expense and subsequent reflection in high gross profit. Furthermore, overstatement of inventory statements leads to business overpaying tax since it increases the pre-tax net income. Basing on this, ABC Investments can therefore seek legal action for damages which can make them recover whatever they have lost which in this case amounts to $500,000 and any other damages. However, Zulu Computer Corporation can argue it as an innocent misrepresentation that leads to a rescission remedy which means that they assume the original status as though they had not signed the contract and will depend on the court whether the damages will be awarded depending on the nature of innocent misrepresentation and losses suffered. ABC Investments can use copies of the financial statements to file a petition of which individual responsibility or company responsibility will

Summative Assessment for Master of Midwifery Leadership and Essay

Summative Assessment for Master of Midwifery Leadership and Development (topic to be decided) - Essay Example These classical theories do not take into account individual characteristics of each member and each member’s capacity for potential leadership. Newer theories by Taylor and Weber offer more scientific principles and explanations for management and leadership. Through these theories, we can deduce various techniques in leadership. We can also deduce various elements of an effective team. The various elements of an effective team are: a meaningful and clearly defined task; clear team objectives and individual targets; regular meetings; regular feedbacks on individual and team success in achieving objectives; the right balance of people; reflexivity-the ability to reflect on team performance and adapt and change; a good balance of concern for the team task and concern for the team welfare; the experience of full participation; and good leadership. This study aims to establish the student’s comprehension of the subjects and unit topics covered by this course. It also aims to apply the knowledge that the student has learned in an issue related to leadership and management in healthcare. This study aims to apply the different theories on leadership and management which were discussed in the different sessions of this course. Strong leadership and management skills are important tools for members of the health care team. Without effective leadership skills, the implementation of health care services becomes a counterproductive enterprise. In the nursing care process, the nurse is often called on to be a manager, and in some instances, she is also called on to be a leader. Both roles are different from the other. Wywialowski (1993) refers to nursing management as â€Å"the judicious use of resources to achieve identified client goals†. The responsibilities of the nurse manager include directing and controlling. He distinguishes nursing management from leadership by defining the latter as

The Waste of Time Essay Example for Free

The Waste of Time Essay Sonnet 18 is a typical Shakespearean sonnet that hardly departs from the â€Å"classic† rules of an English sonnet. It has fourteen lines in a simple iambic pentameter; although, there are a few strong first syllables in the poem and some lines have eleven syllables instead of just ten. None of the lines flow into the next one. All of them have a distinct stopping place except that of line 9 (as far as punctuation goes.) There are three quatrains in the poem, the third one changes the tone of the poem, that are followed up by a rhymed couplet that ends the poem. The poem also has a typical rhyme scheme of ABAB CDCD EFEF GG. Sonnet 18 is considered to be the first of the group of 108 sonnets written about a young man, however one could easily presume that the person being talked about is a woman, so since there is no suggestion in this poem of a particular sex the anonymous person will be addressed as Shakespeare’s â€Å"beloved.† Shakespeare in Sonnet 18 compares his love to a summers day in a twist, instead of saying how his beloved is like the sun, he tells of how his love is not like what he describes.. In the first line of the poem, the author is asking or just wondering out loud if he should compared his love to a summer’s day. The second line Shakespeare jumps right into answering the question describing his love as â€Å"lovely† and â€Å"temperate† (ln 2.) The word temperate has a few different meanings. It could mean self -restrained, a mild temperature, but also in the time of Shakespeare people would have thought the word meant a balance of the humours. This pretty much means that they believed human behavior was decided by the amount of certains types of fluids in the body. So temperate meant someone had the right amount of those fluids. In the third line it literally is saying the rough winds of the summer can destroy the flower buds, which means his love does not have this particular trait. The fourth line uses the word lease as in a agreement. The point he is making is that summer is destined to end unlike his loves beauty. Lines five and six continue to describe the sun and how it can be too hot at times and how it also can be dulled by the covering of the clouds. The word complexion generally means the look of the faces skin, but here it also goes back to a balance of humours as did the word temperate. Shakespeare contiues on in his speaking of his love but in broader terms  now. He declares that fair (beauty) fades away, eventually, by chance or in the face of natures changes. The word untrimmd (ln 8) referes to beautiful things trimmings being lost or the fading of beauty. However, it could also refer to a term from sailing, meaning adjeust. That would change the meaning of the word completely. It would mean in the face of natures changes beauty of his lover remains unchanged. The ninth and tenth lines of the poem is the turning point in the sonnet. He begins to argue that his love will never go away or lose its beauty. Owst (ln10) means owns and owes back. It means that either the love wont lose their beauty they own or that they would not have to give back the beauty owed that was given from nature. It sort of goes back to line four when Shakespeare speaks of the summer being a lease, or a temporary ownership. Sonnet 18 has many technical devices that lie within the poem. It has repetition of words like â€Å"more lovely and more temperate† and â€Å"every fair from fair† that are used to emphasize the point being made. Shakespeare also put in the poem contrasting words in the poem such as those in lines five and six: â€Å"shines† and â€Å"dimmed.†

The Serious Problems Of Climate Change Politics Essay

The Serious Problems Of Climate Change Politics Essay Like everyone know climate change is a very serious problem for all the countries; but how much does it effects on Cambodia as a small and poor country? And how can this country solve the problem? To deeply understand why it is, lets briefly look at the overview of the climate change, why it is a big problem, the response that Cambodia have made, and finally we will examine on those initials whether they effective or not. Firstly, it is important to look at the causes and effect of climate change. Climate change or generally known as global warming is a major issue facing by the globe, and has been addressed since the mid-20th century. In order to go into detail, firstly we should know what global warming first is. Global warming is a change in the statically weather over period of time that range from decades to millions of years. The word global warming and climate change have a little bit difference. In a modern term especially in a context of environmental policy, climate change usually refers to the changes in modern climate qualified by anthropogenic (human activities) generally known as global warming or anthropogenic global warming (AGW); whereas, climate change is a consequence resulting from global warming. In other word, climate change is a result from global warming. According to the 2007 Fourth Assessment Report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate change (IPCC), the global surface t emperature has increased 0.74 degree Celsius to 0.18 degree Celsius during the 20th century, and this prediction will increase by 1.4 to 5.8 degree Celsius by the end of the 21st century. This increasing is caused by many factors but mainly from the human activities such as burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and land conversion for farming, and its effects on both animals and human health. The global warming causes a serious impact on Cambodia. Naturally, the climate in Cambodia is tropical monsoon characterized by wet and dry, and there are two seasons in a country: rainy season happens from November through May, and dry season happens from June through October. There is usually rain in rainy season, but some months the amount of rainfall is much; some other months in rainy season is less, and there is usually much rainfall in low land areas. In addition, the rainfall is not regularly scheduled according the seasons. Sometimes there is rain even in the dry season. This is the result of human activities affecting to the climate. They rely heavily on the natural resources especially logging wood which release CO2 into atmosphere. Explicitly, the emission of such gases from deforestation is immense. Annual rainfall would increase, as a prediction, between 3 and 35% from current condition. The flood is consequence of this uncertain weather. Some provinces have already suf fered from flood such as Prey Veng which is the most vulnerable one, Takeo, Battambang, Kampong Cham, Banteay Meanchey, and Kampong Thom. Moreover, it also destroys the crops, and infrastructure, and especially the human lives. As indicated in research, Cambodia was most attacked by flood was in 2000 that effected 3,448,629 of people, damaged 317, 975 houses and destroyed 7,068 houses and 347 deaths. Meanwhile, not only the rainy season the people suffer from but also the dry season which results in drought. The annual temperature is naturally between 22oC to 28oC the maximum. However, the rate is expected to increase from 0.7oC to 2.7oC until 2061. As a result some provinces are highly effected by drought such as : Battambang, Prey Veng, Banteay Meanchey, Kampong Cham, Kampong Speu. Beside flood and drought, the storm also happens but not frequently in Cambodia such as Typhoon. However, once it happened like in 2001, it destroyed 734 houses, 6 schools, two temples, and 1 death, 11 injured. Regarding to this concern, Cambodia has taken several actions so far in the response to those disaster by joining cooperation both nationally and internationally. At the international level, Cambodia has ratified the United Nation Framework on Climate Change on 18 December, 1995 and entered into force on 17 March 1996. Moreover, Cambodia also acceded the Kyoto report on 2 July, 2002, and the Initial National Communication was submitted to the UNFCCC on 8 October 2002. The framework focused mainly on reducing the greenhouse gases emission from deforestation and from factories pollution, in which Cambodia contributes less than other countries. To make this work more effectively, Cambodia approved for the National Adaptation Program of Action on Climate Change (NAPA) in October 2006 with the four main sectors that have to focus on in NAPA such as agriculture, water resources, coastal zone, and human health. To implement these policies, Ministry of Environment is a focal point for NAPA. In addition, National Climate Change Committee (NCCC) was created on 24 April, 2006 under the sub-degree to coordinate, monitor, and implement the policies related to the UNFCCC. Beside these, Cambodian government also created the Cambodian Climate Change Office (CCCO) under the ministry of environment on 23 July 2003 as an institutional body to work closely with the relevant organizations working on the climate change issue in term of GHG emission. At the local level, on the other hand, the government has also tried hard to initiate some programs such as training and development the awareness of climate change at the local villages, the plantation program in the climate change prone provinces such as Prey Veng, and Battambang, and a technique of using the animal mature as a stove gas instead of wood fuel. Also, the government funded by the donors tried to construct the infrastructure bridges, and roads damaged by the flood as a part of preventing further damages. Treatment and education about the health care are essential. Moreover, the National Committee for Disaster Risk Management was created in 1995 to provide the relief and preventive measure from losing lives and properties in the disaster in the district level. However, because of lack of finance support and technical assistance makes the plan difficult to be achieved Four, meanwhile Cambodia is a poor country; therefore, we cannot implement or initiate any policy by its own for several reasons. First, it is the challenge from the gap of people in Cambodia. Well, it is hard have jobs worked smoothly because people still have low level of education; thus, they seem not to understand and see the results of the climate change. In addition, the most people that suffer most are those who live in rural areas rather that in the city, yet those people in city are hard to understand about the effects very clearly. Second, as a poor country we dont have enough financial resources on combating on the various projects; we depend almost on the international assistances. Therefore, it is hard for Cambodian government to initiate any project on combating the issue as we have to convince the international donors to agree on our project before they provide fund. Third is that we still lack of human resources and experts to run the project smoothly; this is mainly because very few people are interested in learning about the climate change. Finally, by looking at these obstacles Cambodia faces, especially the fourth one, it is believed that it is impossible for Cambodia to combat the climate change issue alone; there must be some contribution from outside because the problems are also too large for Cambodia to solve by itself. Furthermore, it is even more impossible because the international approaches also fail to regulate and enforce the policies on reducing the climate change issues, especially the failure of Kyoto Protocol, so is Cambodia. I will elaborate about its failures to link with Cambodia. First reason that it failed is that it failed to enough the US as the member. The United States has never ratified any policy the Kyoto Protocol set for the reason that those policies are seriously harm the United States economy. Based on this reason, the Kyoto Protocol lacked of the effective leadership and the large amount of financial support especially from the United States, that is one of the big problems for Kyoto P rotocol. Even, in addition, the already members of the Protocol, Protocol itself cannot be assure that its members implement the policies set effectively. Like the Canada, it promised to reduce the emission 6 percent below the 1990 level until 2008 and 2012; however, it increased above 30 percent higher that than the target. Moreover, the Kyoto Protocol also failed to get its parties to take the substantial actions. The Canada, for instance, did not implement what the Kyoto required because all of those actions required Canada to reduce its emission much more than the other countries; the problem is also similar to the New Zealand, and Japan. So, the fact that the internally approaches taken to imitate the problem of climate change is such failed like that especially the big one, the Kyoto Protocol, how Cambodia, a small and poor country, can tackle the problem if it depend mainly the international aids? Well, it is really impossible then. In conclusion, the climate change issue is not the alone single countrys responsibility but the whole world because it effects all, and a country like Cambodia would be the most affected one for the reason that it is poor, lack of expertise to initiate technical mechanisms, and especially the financial supports, yet it is the less polluting country for it is a developing country. Even although being the most affected one, Cambodia still tries to solve the problems by national and internationally even sometimes it failed. Through the new mechanism and its efforts to tackle the problems, the problem of climate change can be reduced substantially, and it is unpredictable that it would be completely solve this problem in the future.

A Critical Analysis Of The Constructivism Method Politics Essay

A Critical Analysis Of The Constructivism Method Politics Essay This essay attempts to provide an overview of constructivism in international relations theory; traces back its origins through writings of some scholars ,particularly Alexander Wendt . It sheds light on prominence of constructivism as a challenger to the mainstream international relations. It first lays out the basic tenets of constructivism and examines their implications on opening new substantive areas to inquiry, such as the roles of gender and ethnicity, which have been largely absent from international relations approaches. Having defined some of the core features of constructivism as an approach, the article examines constructivism as theory . This will be conducted through applying theory functions on constructivism. In addition , the essay shows some of the critiques of constructivism from realist and post-positivist point views. Finally . It concludes with the fact that constructivism is not independent and full-fledged theory but a theoretically informed approach to the study of global politics. Key words: constructivism, ideas, identity, norms, culture, beliefs, social construction anarchy. Constructivism provides a good method, but a poor theory. Discuss. Until the dissolution of the Soviet Union, the debate between Neo-realism and Neo-liberalism has dominated the discipline of International Relations; materialism was the building blocks of mainstream international theory. For neo-realists, the principal determinant of state behaviour is the distribution of military capabilities among states, consequently anarchy and the distribution of relative power drive most of what goes on in world politics. (Copeland 2000:187) .Neo-liberals also saw state interests as essentially material, even if they did posit the importance of international institutions as intervening variables.( Rues-Smit 2001:224). Thus, societal analysis in international relations scholarship has been marginalised. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the writings of Alexender Wendt (1987, 1992), Friedrich Kratochwil (1989) and Nicholas Onuf (1989) established constructivist ideas, a genuinely radical alternative to conventional IR. Although a relatively new approach to IR, constructivism has returned international scholars to the foundational questions, including the nature of the state and the concepts of sovereignty and citizenship. In addition, constructivism has opened new substantive areas to inquiry, such as the roles of gender and ethnicity, which have been largely absent from international relations approaches. (Mingst 20004:74) By reimagining the social as a constitutive realm of values and practices, and by situating individual identities within such a field, constructivists have placed sociological inquiry back at the centre of the discipline. Aided by the momentous changes that attended the end of the Cold War, and also by the ongoing process of globalization, the constructivists interest in the particularities of culture, identity, interest and experience created space for renaissance in the study of history and world politics. .( Rues-Smit 2001:226) Constructivism as an approach Constructivism is about human consciousness and its role in international life (Ruggie 1998). Constructivists focus on the role of ideas, norms, knowledge, culture, and argument in politics, stressing in particular the role of collectively held or intersubjective ideas and understandings on social life. Specifically, constructivism is an approach to social analysis that asserts the following: (1) human interaction is shaped primarily by ideational factors, not simply material ones; (2) the most important ideational factors are widely shared or intersubjective beliefs, which are not reducible to individuals; and (3) these shared beliefs construct the interests and identities of purposive actors (Adler 1997, Price Reus-Smit 1998, Ruggie 1998, Wendt 1999). The core observation in constructivism is the social construction of reality. This has a number of related elements. One is to emphasize the socially constructed nature of actors and their identities and interests. Instead of assuming that actors are born outside of and prior to society, the claim is that individuals are produced and created by their cultural environment. Nurture not nature. (Branett 2001 : 259). In an of-repeated phrase, Alexander Wendt captured the methodological core of IR constructivism: anarchy is what states make of it. There is no objective international world apart from the practices and institutions that states arrange among themselves. In making that statement , Wendt argues that a self-help anarchy is not some kind of external given which dictates a logic of analysis based on realism: self-help and power politics are institutions ,not essential features of anarchy'(Wendt 1992:395) ,(Jackson Sorensen 1999:239) Alexander Wendt argues that political structure, whether one of anarchy or particular distribution of material capabilities, explain nothing. It tells us little about state behaviour : It does not predict whether two states will be friend or foes, will recognize each others sovereignty ,will have dynastic ties, will have revisionist or status quo powers, and so on. (Wendt 1992:395) . What we need to know is identity, and identities change as a result of cooperative behaviour and learning. Whether the system is anarchic depends on the distribution of identities, not the distribution of military capabilities, as the realist would have us believe. If a state identifies with itself, then the system may be anarchic. If a state identifies with other states, then there is no anarchy (.(Mingst 20004:75) A security dilemma , for example , is not merely made up of the fact that two sovereign states possess nuclear weapons. It also depends on how those states view each other; that view is based on shared knowledge. ,(Jackson Sorensen1999:238) In a constructivist analysis, agents and structures are mutually constituted; structures not only constrain actors, they also shape the identities and the interests of them. Thus structures are also defined by ideas, norms, and rules; in other words, structures contain normative and material elements. The challenge, therefore, is to recognize that the normative structure can create agents and that agents can create and possibly transform those structures. (Branett 2001 : 255). According to Alder , constructivisms importance and its added value for the study of international relations lie mainly in its emphasis on the ontological reality of intersubjective knowledge and on the epistemological and methodological implications of this realty. ( Alder1997:322) . Additionally , power can be understood not only as the ability of one actor to do what they would not to do otherwise , but also as the production of identities and interests that limit the ability to control their life. In sum , the meanings that actors bring to their activities are shaped by the underlying culture, and meanings are not always fixed but are a central feature of politics. Constructivism as a theory However, despite of the intellectual vigour that constructivism has fostered, this approach has been criticized. John Mersheimer complains that constructivists put too much emphasis on subjective ideas knowledge: realists believe that the state behaviour is largely shaped by the material structure of the international system. The distribution of material capabilities among states is the key factor for understanding world politics. This means that everything is not uncertain or in flux, says Mersheimer, because the material structure is an objective reality and is not merely intersubjective. (Mearsheimer 1995a:91-92). Although constructivism is deeply concerned with radically changing state behaviour, it says little about how change comes about. It does not tell us why particular discourses become dominant, and others fall by the wayside. And when constructivism trys to point out particular factors that lead to changes in discourse, often argues that material changes drive changes in discourse. So discourse is not determinative , but a reflective of developments in objective world..( Mearsheimer 1995b :42 ). In addition, neo-realists are sceptical about the importance that constructivists attach to norms, in particular international norms. Such norms surely exist, but they are routinely disregarded if that is in the interest of powerful states.( Jackson 2006 ). Moreover, there is no international consensus concerning norms of behaviour in the international system, primary of which is justice and human rights. At the same time, neo-realists are not ready to accept that states can easily become friends due to their social interaction. Such a goal may be desirable in principle, but not realizable in practice, because the structure of the international system forces states to behave as egoists. Anarchy, offensive capabilities, and uncertain intentions combine to leave states with little choice but to compete aggressively with each other. For realists, trying to infuse states with communitarian norms is a hopeless cause (Mearsheimer 1995b: 367). From the post-positivist side, Steve Smith argues that the constructivist view of how ideas and shared knowledge shape the way the actors see themselves in world politics is not sufficiently profound. Furthermore, the constructivist agenda is a rather traditional one, focusing on the interaction of states .There is no place for structure such as capitalism or patriarchy. (Smith 1997:186) Finally, if, as constructivists claim, there is no objective reality . if the world is in the eye of the beholder , then there can be no right or wrong answers , only individual perspectives. With no authoritative texts, all texts are equally valid both the musings of the elite and the practices of everyday men and women. (Mingst 20004:76) Is it a theory? A theory is a based upon a hypothesis and backed by evidence; it presents a concept or idea that is testable. In science, a theory is not merely a guess. A theory is a fact-based framework for describing a phenomenon. In social sciences, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thoughts, emotions, and behaviours. A social theory has two key components: (1) it must describe behaviour and (2) make predictions about future behaviours. To evaluate a theory, we must verify many conditions: 1- Generalizability: applicability to many times, places, and issues. 2-Empirical validity: accuracy of predictions. 3-Progression: whether it expands to new predictions or degenerates by excessive modification. If we apply these conditions to constructivism, we will find that constructivism is neither specific enough to be testable, nor parsimonious. And it is unclear what factors are cause nor which are effect. It does not prize deductive methods of theory-construction and does not seek to uncover causalities. ( Ruggie, 1998, 52) Constructivism is a different kind of theory from realism, liberalism, or Marxism and operates at a different level of abstraction. Constructivism is not a substantive theory of politics. It is a social theory that makes claims about the nature of social life and social change; consequently it does not, by itself, produce specific predictions about political outcomes that one could test in social science research. (Finnemore Sikkink 2001:393) As such, it is much more and much less than meets the eye. It is much less because it is not properly a theory that can be viewed as a rival to already existing theories. It offers no predictions about enduring regularities or tendencies in world politics. Instead, it suggests how to investigate them. Consequently, it is much more than meets the eye because if offers alternative ways of thinking about a range of issues. (Branett 2001 : 268) However, the debate about basic theory is of course relevant for the constructivist ambition of demonstrating that ideas matter. How exactly is it that ideas matter? Do changes in ideas always come before changes in material conditions? Do ideas guide policy or are they justifications for policy? Should ideas be seen as causes of behaviour in IR or should they rather be seen as constitutive elements that define what IR is all about? Further clarification in these areas is of vital importance for the constructivist research programme. (Jackson 2006). Drawing on what mentioned above, there is scepticism about constructivism .whether it is properly to be seen as a theory of IR theory or as a philosophical category, a meta-theory or a method for empirical research, or whether it is indeed an approach relevant at several levels. ( Zehfuss 2002:9) . In conclusion, constructivism is not independent and full-fledged theory but a theoretically informed approach to the study of global politics. Conclusion Constructivism challenged the disciplines mainstream on its own terms and on issues that were at the heart of its research agenda. (Branett 2001: 268) However, the rise of Constructivism has had several important impacts on the development of international relations theory and analysis; the social, historical, and normative have returned to the centre stage of debate, especially the American core of the discipline. . ( Rues-Smit 2001:225) Constructivisms core assumptions have shaped its empirical research program in several important ways. They have shaped the kinds of questions constructivists tend to ask by opening up for inquiry issues that other approaches had failed to engage. Understanding the constitution of things is essential in explaining how they behave and what causes political outcomes. Just as understanding how the double-helix DNA molecule is constituted materially enables understandings of genetics and disease, so, too, an understanding of how sovereignty, human rights, laws of war, or bureaucracies are constituted socially allows us to hypothesize about their effects in world politics. (Finnemore Sikkink 2001:394). Their claim deserves attention in a world where inflamed passions lead to bloodshed in the name of neither conquest nor class, but instead simply because of who the enemy is: a Muslim, a Serb, a Tutsi, a Hutu, a Catholic, a Protestant, an Arab, or a Jew. Realism and liberalism are not incapable of explaining hatred, but they struggle to account for such widespread violence that serves neither Mammon nor the national interest. (Kowert,Paul 2001). Finally , Constructivism has become a phenomenon in IR not merely because many scholars adopted it , but because a lot of scholars debated and are still debating it .

Jade of Peony Essay -- Literary Analysis, Wayson Choy

We have all been in a situation where we have immigrated to a new country for different reasons regarding, better future, or education. In the book Jade of Peony, Wayson Choy describes a struggle of a Chinese immigrant family as they settle in Canada, through the perspective of three young children; Liang, Jung, and Sekky. Each child describes his or her struggle, while settling in a new country. The family struggles to keep their children tied to their Chinese customs and traditions as they fit in this new country. The Chinese culture needs to be more open minded as it limits the future generation’s potential. Chinese culture limitations are seen through the relationship expectations, education, gender roles and jobs. Similarly, the relationship expectations in Chinese customs and traditions were strongly held onto. The daughters of the Chinese family were considered as a shame for the family. The sons of the family were given more honour than the daughters. In addition, some daughters were even discriminated. The only daughter in the family, Liang had to hear her grandmothers taunt: â€Å"If you want a place in this world [...] do not be born as a girl child† (Choy 27). The girls from the Chinese family were considered useless. They were always looked down upon in the family; they felt as if the girls cannot provide a family with wealth, this attitude would really affect the parents from Chinese family preferred boys as they thought; boys could work and provide the family income. Due to Chinese culture preference to having boys, girls often did not have the right to live. In the Chinese ethnicity, the family always obeyed the elder’s decision. When the family was trying to adapt t o the new country and they were trying to learn th... ...ulture resists the new generations potential, due to the gender roles and jobs. In conclusion, Chinese cultures prohibition was seen, by examining the relationship expectations, education, and gender roles and jobs. The Chinese culture needs to be more cultivated as it constricts the newer generation’s capability in Canada. In Wayson Choy’s book The Jade of Peony, he describes the struggles of an immigrated Chinese family, as they tried to follow two cultures to adjust in a new country like Canada, but still held onto the old traditions of China, and the kids of the family struggled as they tried to follow these two cultures. We all know the struggles the Chinese immigrants had to face as they embraced a new life in a country like Canada. However, we remember and praise these immigrants for their determination as they, work hard to make a name in this country.

The Euthyphro Dilemma Essay -- Philosophy Plato Euthyphro

The Euthyphro Dilemma In Plato's dialogue, 'Euthyphro', Socrates presents Euthyphro with a choice: `Is what is pious loved by the gods because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved [by the gods]?' Euthyphro responds by asserting that piety is that which is approved [loved] or sanctioned by the gods; whence impiety is whatever is disapproved of by the gods. However, as Socrates points out, the question poses a dilemma for those who believe as Euthyphro does that Truth is revealed by divine authority alone. Now, a dilemma is an argument forcing a choice of two unfavourable alternatives. The important point here is that the alternatives must be equally unfavourable. Simply to be faced with two alternatives is not to be faced with a dilemma. To appreciate why each of the options set out above are unpalatable for Euthyphro, we need to unpack the import of each alternative carefully. In drawing out the implications of Socrates' argument, I intend to substitute the word `God' for Plato's `gods'; this change will not affect the potency of the argument, and will make the dilemma more topical and relevant to the modern reader. Essentially, the dilemma faced by Euthyphro is this: If it is maintained that certain actions and dispositions are good simply because God favours them, then it seems that the distinction between good and evil, right and wrong, is purely arbitrary; for no reason can be given why God should favour one kind of action rather than another. The distinction is solely a matter of God's `taste', just as it is a matter of my taste that I prefer prawns to oysters. As no reason can be given why God should favour, say, justice and kindness, he might equally have favoured their opposites. In which case ... ...d so, the dilemma has not been resolved completely after all. Undoubtedly, anyone holding a theistic conception of morality must find some place for divinely revealed moral commands; but it may be that in so doing the theist weakens their resolution of the dilemma. On the one hand, they want to say that the question of whether an alleged special revelation concerning moral matters comes from God is to be answered in the light of our rationally established criteria of good and evil. This suggests that morality has no need of revelation. On the other hand, they want to say that, for the theist, ultimate questions of good and evil cannot be answered apart from reference to special revelation. This suggests that, in the final analysis, our reason is inadequate as a source of the knowledge of good and evil. It is hard to see how the theist can have it both ways.

Birth: The Beginning of Life Essay -- Birthing Birth Essays

Birth: The Beginning of Life Birth: a definition For all mammals (with platypuses being the exception), parturition is the beginning of life as we know it. More specifically, birth is the means by which non-human primates and human primates alike begin their experience of the world. I am interested in the significance of childbirth the method by which it is carried out, its implications for the birthing mother, and the way that the birthing process is viewed by different societies. Both birth and the postpartum period involve a certain degree of danger for the birthing mother, her nascent child, and her entire family or community. Because childbirth is so dangerous (the average lifetime risk of dying from pregnancy related causes is about one in fifteen in some poor countries, MacCormack 1), most cultures have distinct patterns that determine how the birthing process will be carried out. The birthing process involves different birthing positions; different rules concerning who is allowed to be present during the time of birth; mechanisms for deciding where birth takes place; and different ways by which mother and child deal with labor, birth and postpartum. "As a life crisis event, birth is everywhere a candidate for consensual shaping and social regulation the particular pattern depending on local history, ecology, social structure, technological development, and the like" (Jordan 4). By exploring the original human condition of childbirth one is able to gain insight into the universal biosocial phenomenon known as the birthing process. In addition, I am interested in studying childbirth because, as women's work, it is usually not given enough attention in the traditionally male-dominated field of anthropology. "Unt... ... Peoples. London: J. Cape, 1971. Hrdy, Sarah Blaffer. The Langurs of Abu: Female and Male Strategies of Reproduction. Cambridge, MA:, Harvard Univ. Press, 1997. Jordan, Brigitte. Birth in Four Cultures: A Cross-cultural Investigation of Childbirth in Yucatan, Holland, Sweden, and the United States. 4th ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1993. Lawlor, Robert. Voices of the First Day: Awakening in the Aboriginal Dreamtime. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Trad. Ltd., 1991. MacCormack, Carol P., ed. Ethnography of Fertility and Birth. 2nd ed. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press, 1994. National Geographic Society. "Among the Wild Chimpanzees." National Geographic Video, 1984. Pinker, Steven. "Why they kill their newborns" New York Times Magazine 11 Feb. 1997: 52-55. Smuts et. al. eds. Primate societies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986.

Christian Service Reflection Paper

Christopher Leveratto May 26, 2012 Scripture: Christian Service Reflection Paper Through the course of five weeks I have tutored a third grader by the name of Willy one hour each Thursday. Willy is a high-spirited kid who loves to learn. He goes to a school named Corpus Christi, a school I spent my sixth through eighth grade years at, and is also the organization I volunteered for. I chose this particular work because I love working with kids considering I have 4 younger brothers and sisters. This also gave me an opportunity to put my knowledge to good use and to be a good role-model towards Willy.What I gained from this experience is satisfaction from helping a young student cope with his academic struggles and learn to surpass them in order to be successful. I most definitely would do this project again if I had the chance. For the remaining five hours that I needed to serve I had a close friend of mine shadow me during school. I chose this particular work because I’ve alway s regretted not getting to know what school at Bishop Ireton was like so I offered my friend the opportunity to do so.What I gained from this experience is happiness from seeing my close friend again and the guarantee that she’ll be coming to our school next year. I would love to do this again so I may encourage as many students to come to our school so they may be a part of our Salesian community. Moses the prophet was a very loyal servant of God and he was the one who set the example for the Israelites while they were on his journey to the Holy Land. Since his encounter with God in the burning bush he was chosen to lead the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt.In this encounter God says to him, â€Å"I have indeed seen  the misery  of my people in Egypt. I have heard them crying out because of their slave drivers, and I am concerned  about their suffering. So I have come down  to rescue them from the hand of the Egyptians and to bring them up out of that land into a good and spacious land,  a land flowing with milk and honey  Ã¢â‚¬â€the home of the Canaanites, Hittites, Amorites, Perizzites, Hivites  and Jebusites. And now the cry of the Israelites has reached me, and I have seen the way the Egyptians are oppressing  them.So now, go. I am sending  you to Pharaoh to bring my people the Israelites out of Egypt. † (Exodus 3:7-10) Once Moses rescued the Israelites he took them on a journey of 40 years to the Holy Land. The Israelites grew tired and started to regret coming with Moses. God then sent the 10 comandments to establish a guide line for the Israelites to follow. God explained these guidelines by saying, â€Å"I am the  Lord  your God,  who brought you out  of Egypt,  out of the land of slavery. You shall have no other gods before  me.You shall not misuse the name of the  Lord  your God, for the  Lord  will not hold anyone guiltless who misuses his name. Remember the Sabbath  day by keeping it holy. Honor your father and your mother,  so that you may live long  in the land  the  Lord  your God is giving you. You shall not murder. You shall not commit adultery. You shall not steal. You shall not give false testimony  against your neighbor. You shall not covet  your neighbor’s house. You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife, or his male or female servant, his ox or donkey, or anything that belongs to your neighbor. (Exodus 20) Moses was an example of a person who followed God’s every word and kept faith when all was lost. He guided those who needed him and were having trouble learning the ways of the Lord. This person inspired me to help others like Willy and my close friend so they may adapt to what they’re learning and have an opportunity to experience something new so they would be more comfortable when they do it. I continue to strive to be like Moses so I also can be a messenger of God who spreads kindness and knowledge to those arou nd him. I strive to be a prophet of God.

Evolution of Microprocessor

Ameri buns University CSIS 550 floor of Computing prof Tim Bergin Technology Research Paper little of importframes Beatrice A. Muganda AU ID 0719604 May 3, 2001 -2- EVOLUTION OF THE MICROPROCESSOR INTRODUCTION The collegial Webster dictionary describes micro mainframe as a reck integrity and save(a)r central mainframe be cleargond on an combine- hitch detach. In the mid-s dismantleties, a microprocessor was defined as a primeval processing unit ( mainframe) realized on a LSI ( bounteous-scale integration) moment, ope tread at a time frequency of 1 to 5 MHz and constituting an 8-bit governance (Heffer, 1986).It was a wholeness component having the strength to bring ab bulge a wide variety of divergent aims. Beca practice session of their comparatively pitiful cost and sm altogether size, the microprocessors permitted the ingestion of digital computers in some(prenominal) beas where the go for of the preceding mainframeand even minicomputers would non be p ractical and affordable ( estimator, 1996). many an(prenominal) an(prenominal) non-technical people associate microprocessors with altogether PCs notwithstanding thither be thousands of appliances that relieve oneself a microprocessor embedded in them telephone, dishwasher, microwave, quantify radio, and so on In these items, the microprocessor acts in the first off place as a controller and whitethorn not be kn profess to the drillr.The Breakthrough in Microprocessors The turn units in computers that were employ in the archeozoic 1940s were the automatic relays. These were gubbinss that opened and unopen as they did the calculations. Such mechanical relays were occasiond in Z habituates machines of the 1930s. -3- Come the 1950s, and the void tubes took over. The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (ABC) use vacuum tubes as its switching units rather than relays. The switch from mechanical relay to vacuum tubes was an wholly- meaning(a)(a) expert advance as vacuum tub es could achieve calculations considerably faster and to a greater extent beliefive than relay machines.However, this technological advance was transient because the tubes could not be do little than they were being do and had to be lay adjacent to keyly opposite because they generated fondness (Freiberger and Swaine, 1984). Then came the electronic electronic transistor which was ack right offledged as a varietyary development. In onslaught in the V anyey, the authors describe the transistor as a thingummy which was the placelet of a series of developments in the applications of physics. The transistor changed the computer from a heavyweight electronic brain to a commodity desire a TV company.This innovation was awarded to cardinal scientists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley. As a go pop of the technological breakthrough of transistors, the introduction of minicomputers of the sixties and the personal computer revolution of the seventies was made executable. However, researchers did not stop at transistors. They wanted a turn that could coif to a greater extent Byzantine t consumesa turn of events that could integrate a count of transistors into a to a greater extent than complex rophy. Hence, the borderinology, integrate circuits or ICs.Because physic totallyy they were tiny verifications of atomic number 14, they came to be withal referred to as check marks. Initially, the demand for ICs was naturally the army and aerospace -4- in studries which were great users of computers and who were the only industries that could afford computers (Freiberger and Swaine, 1984). Later, Marcian Ted Hoff, an employ scientist at Intel, developed a civilise chip. This chip could extract entropy from its storehouse and interpret the data as an information. The boundary that evolved to describe such a device was microprocessor. at that placefore, the term microprocessor first came into use at Intel in 1972 (Noyce, 1981). A microprocessor was naught much than an extension of the arithmetical and logic IC chips corporating much functions into one chip (Freiberger and Swaine, 1984). Today, the term still refers to an LSI unmarried-chip processor capable of carrying out many of the raw material trading operations of a digital computer. Infact, the microprocessors of the deep eighties and premature nineties argon full-sclae 32-bit and 32-bit visit systems, operating at measure cycles of 25 to 50 MHz (Heffer, 1986).What led to the development of microprocessors? As stated above, microprocessors essentially evolved from mechanical relays to integrated circuits. It is important to illustrate here what aspects of the act out intentness led to the development of microprocessors. (1) digital computer engineering science In the History of Computing class, we studied, throughout the semester, how the computer industry learned how to make large, complex digital computers capable of p rocessing more data and overly how to build and use smaller, little(prenominal) -5- big-ticket(prenominal) computers.The digital computer engineering had been growing steadily since the late 1940s. (2) Semiconductors metreized the digital computer technology, semiconducting materials had likewise been growing steadily since the invention of the transistor in the late 1940s. The 1960s saw the integrated circuit develop from just a few transistors to many complicated tasks, all of the homogeneous chip. (3) The data processor industry It appears as if this industry grew overnight during the seventies from the truthfulst of quartette-function calculators to really complex broadcastmable scientific and financial machines.From all this, one image became obviousif on that point was an inexpensive digital computer, there would be no need to retain figure different, specialized integrated circuits. The inexpensive digital computer could simply be re architectural planmed to hump whatever was the latest brainstorm, and there would be the bran- peeled product (Freiberger and Swaine, 1984). The development of microprocessors disregard be attri justed to when, in the primordial 1970s, digital computers and integrated circuits r from apiece oneed the required trains of capability.However, the early microprocessor did not meet all the goals it was too expensive for many applications, especially those in the consumer market, and it -6- could not hold enough information to perform many of the tasks being handled by the minicomputers of that time. How a microprocessor works According to Krutz (1980), a microprocessor plays a collection of machine book of breedings that order the processor what to do. Based on the instructions, a microprocessor does three basic things Using its ALU (Arithmetic/ logic Unit), a microprocessor nookie perform numeral operations ilk attachment, subtraction, generation and division.Modern microprocessors contain comp lete float foretell processors that terminate perform extremely sophisticated operations on large floating point adds. A microprocessor eject move data from one computer remembering localisation of function to another. A microprocessor dismiss make decisions and jump to a refreshing garnish out of instructions ground on those decisions. There may be very sophisticated things that a microprocessor does, but those be its three basic activities. gear up simply, it fetches instructions from retention, interprets (de graves) them, and and consequently executes whatever functions the instructions direct.For pattern, if the microprocessor is capable of 256 different operations, there must(prenominal) be 256 different instruction reciprocations. When fetched, separately instruction word is interpreted otherwise than any of the other 255. Each instance of microprocessor has a unique instruction constitute (Short, 1987). -7- Archictecture of a microprocessor This is about as simple as a microprocessor gets. It has the fol first-class honours degreeing characteristics an address autobus (that may be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that s repeals an address to memory a data bus (that may be 8, 16 or 32 bits wide) that after partful send data to memory or receive data from memory RD (Read) and WR (Write) line to tell the memory whether it wants to set or get the addressed location a clock line that lets a clock pulse sequence the processor and a reset line that resets the platform counter to zero (or whatever) and restarts death penalty. A typical microprocessor, therefore, consists of logical componentsenable it to function as a computer programmable logic processor program counter, stack, and instruction register leave alone for the anxiety of a program the ALUprovide for the function of data and a decoder & quantify and control unitspecify and consecrate the operation of other components.The connection of the microprocessors to other uni tsmemory and I/O devicesis make with the Address, Data, and control buses. -8- Generation of microprocessors Microprocessors were categorized into vanadium measures first, minute of arc, ternary, fourth, and fifth contemporariess. Their characteristics are described on a lower floor First-generation The microprocessors that were introduced in 1971 to 1972 were referred to as the first generation systems. First-generation microprocessors graceful their instructions seriallythey fetched the instruction, decoded it, thusly executed it.When an instruction was completed, the microprocessor updated the instruction pointer and fetched the adjacent instruction, performing this sequential cut for each instruction in turn. aid generation By the late 1970s (specifi call offy 1973), enough transistors were ready(prenominal) on the IC to usher in the second generation of microprocessor sophistication 16-bit arithmetic and channeld instruction processing. Motorolas MC68000 micropro cessor, introduced in 1979, is an example. Another example is Intels 8080. This generation is defined by overlapped fetch, decode, and execute perverts (Computer 1996).As the first instruction is treat in the functioning unit, the second instruction is decoded and the ordinal instruction is fetched. The distinction surrounded by the first and second generation devices was primarily the use of newer semiconductor technology to reach the chips. This new -9- technology resulted in a five-fold increase in instruction, execution, amphetamine, and luxuriously gearer chip densities. Third generation The third generation, introduced in 1978, was represented by Intels 8086 and the Zilog Z8000, which were 16-bit processors with minicomputer-like performance.The third generation came about as IC transistor counts approached 250,000. Motorolas MC68020, for example, incorporated an on-chip amass for the first time and the depth of the pipeline change magnitude to five or more stages. This generation of microprocessors was different from the previous ones in that all major workstation manufacturers began developing their witness reduced instruction set computing-based microprocessor architectures (Computer, 1996). Fourth generation As the workstation companies converted from commercial microprocessors to in-house designs, microprocessors entered their fourth generation with designs majestic a one meg meg one thousand million transistors.Leading-edge microprocessors such as Intels 80960CA and Motorolas 88100 could issue and render more than one instruction per clock cycle (Computer, 1996). Fifth generation Microprocessors in their fifth generation, employed decoupled super scalar processing, and their design currently surpassed 10 million transistors. In this 10 generation, PCs are a low-margin, high-volume- craft henpecked by a unmarried microprocessor (Computer, 1996). Companies associated with microprocessorsOverall, Intel Corporation dominated the microprocessor area even though other companies like Texas Instruments, Motorola, etc also introduced some microprocessors. Listed below are the microprocessors that each company created. (A) Intel As indicated previously, Intel Corporation dominated the microprocessor technology and is generally ack nowadaysledged as the company that introduced the microprocessor successfully into the market. Its first microprocessor was the 4004, in 1971. The 4004 took the integrated circuit one step further by ocating all the components of a computer (CPU, memory and input and getup controls) on a minuscule chip. It evolved from a development effort for a calculator chip set. Previously, the IC had had to be manufacture to discipline a special purpose, now only one microprocessor could be construct and then programmed to meet any chip of demands. The 4004 microprocessor was the telephone exchange component in a four-chip set, called the 4004 Family 4001 2,048-bit ROM, a 4002 320-bit RAM, a nd a 4003 10-bit I/O shift register. The 4004 had 46 instructions, utilise only 2,300 transistors in a 16-pin DIP.It ran at a clock rate of 11 740kHz (eight clock cycles per CPU cycle of 10. 8 microseconds)the trus tworthy goal was 1MHz, to allow it to compute BCD arithmetic as fast (per digit) as a 1960s era IBM 1620 (Computer, 1996). Following in 1972 was the 4040 which was an intensify version of the 4004, with an additional 14 instructions, 8K program space, and interrupt abilities (including shadows of the first 8 registers). In the same year, the 8008 was introduced. It had a 14-bit PC. The 8008 was intended as a terminal controller and was quite a similar to the 4040.The 8008 increased the 4004s word length from four to eight bits, and two-baggerd the volume of information that could be process (Heath, 1991). In April 1974, 8080, the successor to 8008 was introduced. It was the first device with the invigorate and occasion to make the microprocessor an important t ool for the designer. It quickly became accepted as the standard 8-bit machine. It was the first Intel microprocessor announce in comportment it was actually available. It represented such an emolument over existing designs that the company wanted to supply customers adequate lead time to design the part into new products.The use of 8080 in personal computers and small business computers was initiated in 1975 by MITSs Alt oxygenate microcomputer. A kit selling for $395 enabled many individuals to dupe computers in their own homes (Computer, 1996). Following closely, in 1976, was 8048, the first 8-bit bingle-chip microcomputer. It was also designed as a microcontroller rather than a microprocessorlow cost and small size was the main goal. For this reason, data was stored on-chip, tour program code was external. The 8048 was eventually re located by the very hot but bizarre 8051 and 8052 12 (available with on-chip program ROMs).While the 8048 used 1-byte instructions, the 8 051 had a more pliant 2-byte instruction set, eight 8-bit registers plus an storage battery A. Data space was 128 bytes and could be admissioned at once or indirectly by a register, plus another 128 above that in the 8052 which could only be accessed indirectly (usually for a stack) (Computer, 1996). In 1978, Intel introduced its high-performance, 16-bit MOS processorthe 8086. This microprocessor brooked position, speed, and features out-of-the- fashion(prenominal) beyond the second-generation machines of the mid-70s. It is said that the personal computer revolution did not really start until the 8088 processor was created.This chip became the well-nigh ubiquitous in the computer industry when IBM chose it for its first PC (Frieberger and Swaine, 1984 ). In 1982, the 80286 (also cognise as 286) was future(a) and was the first Intel processor that could tilt all the software written for its predecessor, the 8088. Many novices were introduced to background knowledge compu ting with a 286 machine and it became the predominate chip of its time. It contained 130,000 transistors. In 1985, the first multi-tasking chip, the 386 (80386) was created. This multitasking ability allowed Windows to do more than one function at a time.This 32-bit microprocessor was designed for applications requiring high CPU performance. In addition to providing access to the 32-bit world, the 80386 addressed 2 other important issues it provided system-level shop to systems designers, and it was object-code compatible with the entire family of 8086 microprocessors (Computer, 1996 ). The 80386 was made up of 6 functional units (i) execution unit (ii) segment unit (iii) scalawag unit (iv) decode unit (v) bus unit and (vi) prefetch unit. The 80386 had 13 34 registers dual-lane into such categories as general-purpose registers, right registers, and test registers.It had 275,000 transistors (Noyce, 1981). The 486 (80486) generation of chips really in advance(p) the point-and-c lick revolution. It was also the first chip to offer a reinforced-in math coprocessor, which gave the central processor the ability to do complex math calculations. The 486 had more than a million transistors. In 1993, when Intel lost a ask round to trademark the 586, to protect its brand from being copied by other companies, it coined the name Pentium for its next generation of chips and there began the Pentium seriesPentium Classic, Pentium II, threesome and newly, 4. (B)Motorola The MC68000 was the first 32-bit microprocessor introduced by Motorola in early 1980s. This was followed by higher levels of functionality on the microprocessor chip in the MC68000 series. For example, MC68020, introduced later, had 3 times as many transistors, was about three times as big, and was significantly faster. Motorola 68000 was one of the second generation systems that was developed in 1973. It was known for its graphics capabilities. The Motorola 88000 (originally named the 78000) is a 32- bit processor, one of the first load-store CPUs based on a Harvard computer architecture (Noyce, 1981). C) Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) 14 In March 1974, Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) announced it would offer a series of microprocessor modules built most the Intel 8008. (D) Texas Instruments (TI) A precursor to these microprocessors was the 16-bit Texas Instruments 1900 microprocessor which was introduced in 1976. The Texas Instruments TMS370 is similar to the 8051, another of TIs creations. The only difference between the two was the addition of a B put togetherer and some 16-bit support. Microprocessors TodayTechnology has been changing at a rapid pace. Everyday a new product is made to make aliveness a little easier. The computer plays a major role in the lives of most people. It allows a person to do a good deal anything. The net enables the user to gain more knowledge at a very much faster pace compared to researching through books. The lot of the comput er that allows it to do more work than a simple computer is the microprocessor. Microprocessor has brought electronics into a new era and caused component manufacturers and end-users to believe the role of the computer.What was once a giant machine attended by specialists in a room of its own is now a tiny device handily transparent to users of auto liquid, games, instruments, office equipment, and a large array of other products. 15 From their discredit beginnings 25 eld ago, microprocessors take hold proliferated into an dumbfounding range of chips, powering devices ranging from telephones to supercomputers (PC Magazine, 1996). Today, microprocessors for personal computers get widespread attentionand have enabled Intel to operate the worlds largest semiconductor maker.In addition, embedded microprocessors are at the total of a diverse range of devices that have become staples of affluent consumers worldwide. The impact of the microprocessor, however, goes far deeper tha n new and improved products. It is altering the anatomical structure of our society by changing how we gather and use information, how we communicate with one another, and how and where we work. Computer users want fast memory in their PCs, but most do not want to pay a agiotage for it. Manufacturing of microprocessors Economical manufacturing of microprocessors requires mass intersection.Microprocessors are constructed by depositing and removing thin layers of conducting, insulating, and semiconducting materials in hundreds of separate steps. Nearly every layer must be patterned accurately into the status of transistors and other electronic elements. Usually this is through with(p) by photolithography, which projects the pattern of the electronic circuit onto a coating that changes when exposed to light. Because these patterns are smaller than the shortest wavelength of visible light, short wavelength invisible radiation must be used. Microprocessor features 16 are so small and small that a single speck of dust can destroy the microprocessor. Microprocessors are made in filtered clean rooms where the air may be a million times cleaner than in a typical home (PC World, 2000)). Performance of microprocessors The number of transistors available has a huge effect on the performance of a processor. As seen earlier, a typical instruction in a processor like an 8088 took 15 clock cycles to execute. Because of the design of the multiplier, it took approximately 80 cycles just to do one 16-bit multiplication on the 8088.With more transistors, much more powerful multipliers capable of single-cycle speeds become possible ( ). More transistors also allow a technology called pipelining. In a pipelined architecture, instruction execution overlaps. So even though it might take 5 clock cycles to execute each instruction, there can be 5 instructions in various stages of execution simultaneously. That way it looks like one instruction completes every clock cycle (PC Wo rld, 2001). Many modern processors have multiple instruction decoders, each with its own pipeline.This allows multiple instruction streams, which means more than one instruction can complete during each clock cycle. This technique can be quite complex to implement, so it takes lots of transistors. The trend in processor design has been toward full 32-bit ALUs with fast floating point processors built in and pipelined execution with multiple instruction streams. There has also been a tendency toward special instructions (like the MMX 17 instructions) that make certain operations particularly efficient. There has also been the addition of hardware virtual memory support and L1 caching on the processor chip.All of these trends push up the transistor count, leading to the multi-million transistor powerhouses available today. These processors can execute about one billion instructions per second (PC World, 2000) ) With all the different types of Pentium microprocessors, what is the dif ference? Three basic characteristics stand out Instruction set The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute. bandwidth The number of bits processed in a single instruction. clock speed Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute.In addition to bandwidth and clock speed, microprocessors are sort out as being either RISC (reduced instruction set computer) or complex instruction set computer (complex instruction set computer). 18 opposite uses of microprocessors There are many uses for microprocessors in the world today. most appliances found around the house are operated by microprocessors. Most modern factories are fully automatedthat means that most jobs are do by a computer. Automobiles, trains, subship canal, planes, and even move services require the use of many microprocessors. In short, there are microprocessors all over you go. Another common place to break microprocessors is a car.T his is especially applicable to sports cars. There are numerous uses for a microprocessor in cars. First of all, it controls the warning LED signs. Whenever there is a paradox, low inunct, for example, it has detectors that tell it that the oil is below a certain amount. It then reaches over and starts blinking the LED until the problem is fixed. Another use is in the foramen system. A processor, controls the amount of pressure applied to keep the car leveled. During turns, a processor, slows shore the wheels on the inner side of the concur and speeds them up on the outside to keep the speed constant and make a smooth turn.An interesting story appeared in the bracing York Times dated April 16 and goes to show that theres no limit to what microprocessors can do and that resarchers and scientists are not stopping at the current uses of microprocessors. The next time the milk is low in the refrigerator, the grocery store may deliver a new congius before it is entirely gone. Masa hiro Sone, who lives in Raleigh, N. C. , has won a patent for a refrigerator with an inventory processing system that keeps get behind of what is inside 19 and what is about to run out and can ring up the grocery store to order more (NY Times, 2001).Where is the industry of microprocessors going? Almost without delay after their introduction, microprocessors became the heart of the personal computer. Since then, the improvements have come at an amazing pace. The 4004 ran at 108 kHzthats kilohertz, not megahertzand processed only 4 bits of data at a time. Todays microprocessors and the computers that run on them are thousands of times faster. Effectively, theyve come pretty close to fulfilling Moores Law (named after Intel cofounder Gordon Moore), which states that the number of transistors on a chip forget double every 18 calendar months or so.Performance has increased at nearly the same rate (PC Magazine, 1998 ). Can the pace hide? Well, nothing can increase forever. entirel y fit in to Gerry Parker, Intels executive vice hot seat in charge of manufacturing, we are far from the end of the line in terms of microprocessor performance. In fact, were constantly seeing new advances in technology, one example being new forms of lithography that let designers position electronic components hand-to-hand and closer together on their chips. Processors are created now using a 0. 35-micron process.But next year well see processors created at 0. 25 microns, with 0. 18 and 0. 13 microns to be introduced in the years to come. (PC Magainze, 1998) However, its not just improvements in lithography and density that can boost performance. Designers can create microprocessors with more layers of metal tying 20 together the transistors and other circuit elements. The more layers, the more compact the design. But these ultracompact microprocessors are also harder to manufacture and validate. New chip designs take up less(prenominal) space, resulting in more chips per w afer.The original Pentium (60/66 MHz) was 294 real millimeters, then it was 164 square millimeters (75/90/100 MHz), and now its 91 square millimeters (133- to 200-MHz versions) (PC Magazine, 1998). When will all this end? Interestingly, it may not be the natural limits of technology that will eventually refute Moores Law. Instead, its more likely to be the cost of each successive generation. Every new level of advancement costs more as making microprocessor development is a tremendously capital-intensive business. Currently, a fabrication plant with the ability to create about 40,000 wafers a month costs some $2 billion.And the rapid pace of innovations means equipment can become obsolete in just a few years. Still, there are ways of cutting some costs, such as converting from todays 8-inch silicon wafers to larger, 300-mm (roughly 12inch) wafers, which can produce 2. 3 times as many chips per wafer as those now in use. Moving to 300-mm wafers will cost Intel about $500 million i n initial capital. Still, nothing brave outs forever. As Parker notes, the PC industry is built on the assumption that we can get more and more out of the PC with each generation, keep costs in check, and continue adding more value.We will run out of money before we run out of technology. When we cant hold costs down anymore, then it will be a different business (PC Magazine, 1998). At the beginning of depart year, the buzz was about PlayStation 2 and the emotion Engine processor that would run it. authentic by Sony and Toshiba, 21 experts predicted the high-tech processor would offer unprecedented gaming power and more importantly, could provide the processing power for the PlayStation 2 to challenge cheap PCs as the entry-level device of choice for home access to the Web.PlayStation2 is equipped with the 295MHz MIPS-based Emotion engine, Sonys own CPU designed with Toshiba Corp. , a 147MHz graphics processor that renders 75 million pixels per second, a videodisk player, an IEEE 1394 serial connection, and two USB ports. Sony will use DVD discs for game titles and gives consumers the option of using the product for gaming, DVD movie playing and eventually Web surfing (PC World, 2000). Soon, sort of of catching up on the word via radio or a newspaper publisher on the way to work, commuters may soon be watching it on a take hold computer or carrell phone.Early January this year, Toshiba America Electronic Components announced its TC35273XB chip. The chip has 12Mb of integrated memory and an encoder and decoder for MPEG-4, an audio-video contraction standard. According to Toshiba, the integrated memory is what sets this chip apart from others. With integrated memory, the chip consumes less power, making it a good fit for take-away gadgets. This chip is designed to specifically address the issues of battery life which can be very short with portable devices.The chip will have a RISC processor at its affection and running at a clock speed of 70MHz (PC World, 2000). Toshiba anticipates that samples of this chip will be released to manufacturers in the second quarter, and mass production will follow in the third quarter. Shortly after this release, new handheld computers and cell phones using the chip and crack streaming media will be evaluate (CNET news). 22 It is reported in CNET news, that in February this year, IBM started a program to use the Internet to speed custom-chip design, bolstering its unit that makes semiconductors for other companies.IBM, one of the biggest makers of application-specific chips, would set up a system so that chip designs are placed in a secure purlieu on the Web, where a customers design aggroup and IBM engineers would collaborate on the blueprints and make changes in real time. Designing custom chips, which are used to provide unique features that standard processors dont offer, requires time- consuming exchanges of details between the clients that provide a basic framework and the IBM emp loyees who do the back-end work. Using the Internet will speed the process and make plans more accurate.IBM figures that since their customers ask for damp turnaround time and better customer satisfaction, this would be one way to tackle this. As a indicator lamp program, this service was to be offered to a set of particular, selected customers initially, and then would include customers who design the questionable system-on-a-chip devices that combine several functions on one chip (CNET news). A new microprocessor uncover in February 2000 by Japans NEC, offers high-capacity performance while only consuming small amounts of power, making it ideal for use in mobile devices.This prototype could resolve as the model for future mobile processors. The MP98 processor contains four microprocessors on the same chip that work together in such a way that they can be switched on and off depending on the job in hand. For example, a single processor can be used to handle easy jobs, such as data entry, through a keypad, while more can be brought 23 online as the task demands, with all four working on tasks such as processing video. This gives designers of portable devices the best of both(prenominal) worldslow power consumption and high capacity (PC World, 2000).However, it should be noted that the idea of putting several processors together on a single chip is not new as both IBM and sunbathe Microsystems have developed similar devices. The only difference is that MP98 is the first working example of a fine grain device that offers better performance. Commercial products based on this technology are likely to be seen around 2003 (PCWorld, 2000). In PCWorld, it was reported that, last September, a Japanese dentist genuine U. S. and Japanese patents for a method of position a microchip into a fictive tooth.The one-chip microprocessor embedded in a home base denture can be find using a radio transmitter-receiver, allowing its possessor to be identified. This is useful in ripened citizens home where all dentures are usually collected from their owners after meals, water-washed together and returned. In such a case, it is important to identify all the dentures to give back to their correct owners without any skid (PC World, 2000). In March this year, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) launched its 1. 3-GHz Athlon processor. Tests on this processor indicated that its speed surpassed Intels 1. GHz Pentium 4. The Athlon processor has a 266-MHz front side bus that works with systems that use 266-MHz memory. The price starts from $2,988 (PCWorld, 2001). Intels Pentium 4, which was launched in late 2000, is designed to provide blazing speedespecially in handling multimedia system content. Dubbed Intel NetBurst 24 Micro-architecture, it is designed to speed up applications that send data in bursts, such as screaming media, MP3 playback, and video compression. scour before the dust had settled on NetBurst, Intel released its much awaited 1. GHz Pen tium 4 processor on Monday, April 23. The is said to be the companys highest-performance microprocessor for desktops. Currently priced at $325 in 1,000 unit quantities. The vice president and general manager of Intel was quoted as saying, the Pentium 4 processor is destined to become the sum total of the digital world. Whether encoding video and MP3 files, doing financial analysis, or experiencing the latest internet technologiesthe Pentium 4 processor is designed to meet the necessitate of all users (PC World, 2001).Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel, over thirty years ago, announced that the number of transistors that can be placed on a silicon would double every two years. Intel maintains that it has remained authoritative since the release of its first processors, the 4004, in 1971. The contestation to determine who has produced the fastest and smallest processor between Intel and AMD continues. Infact, Intel Corp. predicts that PC chips will climb to more than 10GHz from tod ays 1GHz standard by the year 2011. However, researchers are paying increasing attention to software.Thats because new generations of software, especially computing-intensive user interfaces, will call for processors with expanded capabilities and performance.